TIRCIA · General public
Impostor syndrome: what it really is
Origins, measurement, causes and consequences: what forty years of research tell us
By Marie-Agnès Thulliez · Author · Publishing Director12-minute read
"One day, someone is going to realise I'm not up to it." Many capable people know this thought well: despite their qualifications and achievements, they feel they are deceiving those around them and dread being "found out". Since it was first described in 1978, this phenomenon has been the subject of hundreds of studies. Here is what they teach us, beyond the popular myths.
In brief
- "Impostor syndrome" is a way of experiencing one's achievements rather than an illness, first described in 1978 by two American psychologists.
- Its frequency ranges from 9% to 82% depending on the study, because there is no reference measurement tool and no common threshold.
- It affects men and women alike; it is linked to perfectionism, low confidence in one's abilities and, among people from minority groups, to the experience of discrimination.
- It is associated with anxiety, depression and burnout; social support softens its effects, but no specific treatment has yet been evaluated.
1. Where does the idea come from?
In 1978, the psychologists Pauline Clance and Suzanne Imes described, in more than 150 highly qualified women who were recognised in their fields, a persistent feeling of not deserving their success. They called it the "impostor phenomenon" (Clance and Imes, 1978). The word "syndrome", which has passed into everyday language, is misleading: this is not a diagnosis, and the phenomenon does not appear in any classification of mental disorders.
Researchers define it by three elements: the feeling of having misled others about one's abilities, the attribution of one's successes to luck, charm or excessive effort rather than to one's skills, and the fear of one day being discovered (Sakulku and Alexander, 2011). Other teams have studied it under the name "perceived fraudulence" (Kolligian and Sternberg, 1991).
2. How is it measured?
The most widely used tool is the Clance scale (Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale), a questionnaire of 20 statements such as "I'm often afraid that others will discover how much knowledge or ability I really lack". Its reliability has been confirmed in several studies (Chrisman et al., 1995).
A systematic review compared the four main existing questionnaires. Its conclusions are cautious: the Clance scale is the most studied, but no tool clearly stands out, and there is no "gold standard" that can say with certainty who does or does not experience this phenomenon (Mak et al., 2019). This is essential for understanding the figures that circulate.
3. How many people are affected?
It is often said that "70% of people" will experience this feeling at some point in their lives. This figure is not based on any robust study. The most comprehensive systematic review, which brought together 62 studies involving more than 14,000 people, found frequencies ranging from 9% to 82% (Bravata et al., 2020). This considerable gap is explained above all by the variety of questionnaires and thresholds used, and by the populations studied: medical students, nurses, teachers, managers and so on.
The same review shows that the phenomenon is common in men as well as in women, contrary to the idea that it is mainly a female experience.
4. The impostor cycle
Paradoxically, this feeling feeds on success. Pauline Clance described a cycle that repeats itself (Clance, 1985):
| Stage | What happens |
|---|---|
| 1. An important task | An exam, a project, a presentation: anxiety rises. |
| 2. The response | Either we over-prepare, or we put things off until the last minute and then make an intense effort. |
| 3. Success | We succeed, but explain it by the excessive effort ("anyone would have managed, working that hard") or by luck. |
| 4. Reinforcement | Success brings no reassurance. It increases the pressure for next time, and the cycle starts again. |
This is why piling up successes is not enough to quieten this feeling: everything hinges on how we interpret our achievements.
5. Who is affected, and why?
No single factor explains this phenomenon on its own, but several have been well studied:
- Personality. In a study of employees, personality traits explained a large share of the differences between people. The most closely linked factors were low confidence in one's own abilities (self-efficacy), a perfectionism that makes every imperfection feel like a failure, and a tendency towards anxiety (Vergauwe et al., 2015).
- Family history. Clance and Imes described families in which another child was labelled "the clever one", or, on the contrary, in which the child was presented as effortlessly perfect, which made every difficulty suspect.
- Belonging to a minority group. Among students from ethnic minorities, impostor feelings strengthened the link between perceived discrimination, anxiety and depression (Cokley et al., 2017). The phenomenon therefore also depends on the environment, as well as on the person.
- How others see us. Some research suggests that voicing one's doubts may also serve, without our being aware of it, to lower other people's expectations and to guard against possible disappointment (Leary et al., 2000).
The differences between men and women may lie less in frequency than in reactions. In two experiments, after harsh criticism or under strong evaluative pressure, men with strong impostor feelings became more anxious and put in less effort, whereas the women concerned maintained or even increased their effort (Badawy et al., 2018). The authors remain cautious: these are laboratory studies with students.
6. What are the consequences?
The impostor phenomenon deserves to be taken seriously. It is frequently associated with anxiety, depression, lower job satisfaction and burnout (Bravata et al., 2020). At work, it also goes hand in hand with less spontaneous engagement beyond one's own tasks and, paradoxically, with staying attached to one's job for fear of not finding anything better elsewhere (Vergauwe et al., 2015).
An encouraging finding: in the same study, social support at work softened these negative effects. Feeling backed by colleagues and managers is protective.
7. Valerie Young's five "types"
The American author Valerie Young proposed five typical ways of experiencing this feeling (Young, 2011). These types are very popular, but they have not been scientifically validated: they are descriptive pointers, useful for recognising oneself, rather than clinical categories.
| Type | Underlying belief |
|---|---|
| The perfectionist | "If it isn't perfect, it's a failure." |
| The expert | "I have to know everything before I'm legitimate." |
| The natural genius | "If I have to make an effort, I must not be gifted." |
| The soloist | "Asking for help means admitting weakness." |
| The superhero | "I have to excel in all my roles at once." |
8. What can help
The 2020 review found no study that had evaluated a treatment for the impostor phenomenon (Bravata et al., 2020). The following suggestions therefore draw on well-established principles of cognitive behavioural therapies, and on the protective factors identified by research:
- Rebalance how you explain your successes. After a success, note what was down to luck, but also the skills you drew on: analysis, perseverance, know-how.
- Keep a skills journal. Coming back to concrete facts helps to counter the vague impression of "not knowing".
- Loosen perfectionism. Set yourself "good enough" criteria for success and accept mistakes as a stage in learning.
- Talk about it and seek support. Discovering that respected colleagues feel the same way is a relief, and social support is protective.
- Change the question. Instead of "Do I belong here?", ask yourself "What can I contribute?".
Take the example of Claire (a fictional case), 34, recently promoted to project manager. Every meeting puts her on high alert: she prepares her files late into the evening, convinced that the slightest question will reveal that she "has no business being there". When her project is praised, she thinks her team did all the work. In therapy, she learns to spot this pattern, to note what she actually contributed, and to set a limit on her preparation. Six months later, the doubt still surfaces at times, but it no longer runs her evenings.
Organisations have their part to play too: regular, specific feedback, support when people take up a new post and a culture in which it is fine to say "I don't know" all shrink the ground on which this feeling thrives.
When to seek help
If this feeling comes with significant anxiety, persistently low mood, sleep problems or exhaustion, it is worth talking to a doctor or psychologist. These difficulties can be treated, and they deserve to be taken seriously.
What is established, and what is not
- Established: the impostor phenomenon is common, in women and men alike, and it is associated with anxiety, depression and burnout.
- Established: it is a psychological phenomenon rather than a medical diagnosis; estimates of its frequency vary widely depending on the scales and thresholds used.
- Not established: the effectiveness of a specific treatment, for lack of studies; the suggestions offered rest on proven CBT principles.
- To be qualified: Valerie Young's "five types" are a useful lens for understanding, rather than a validated classification.
Frequently asked questions
Is impostor syndrome an illness?
No. It is a psychological phenomenon, a way of perceiving one's achievements. It can, however, come with problems such as anxiety or depression, which can be treated.
Is it more common in women?
It was first described in women, but more recent studies find it just as often in men. Reactions to pressure, however, may differ.
Can it be useful?
Moderate doubt can encourage us to prepare and to stay open to learning. It becomes a problem when it stops us from acting, wears us out or makes us give up on projects.
Is there a reliable test?
The Clance scale is the most widely used and can help you take stock. But no questionnaire can "diagnose" this phenomenon on its own, and results should be interpreted with caution.
In one sentence
Impostor syndrome reflects the way you interpret your achievements, far more than your actual abilities.
Recognising it, talking about it, loosening perfectionism and surrounding yourself with support all help to loosen its grip.
References
- Badawy, R. L., Gazdag, B. A., Bentley, J. R., & Brouer, R. L. (2018). Are all impostors created equal? Exploring gender differences in the impostor phenomenon-performance link. Personality and Individual Differences, 131, 156-163.
- Bravata, D. M., Watts, S. A., Keefer, A. L., et al. (2020). Prevalence, predictors, and treatment of impostor syndrome: A systematic review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 35(4), 1252-1275. Link
- Chrisman, S. M., Pieper, W. A., Clance, P. R., Holland, C. L., & Glickauf-Hughes, C. (1995). Validation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65(3), 456-467.
- Clance, P. R. (1985). The Impostor Phenomenon: Overcoming the Fear That Haunts Your Success. Atlanta: Peachtree.
- Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). The imposter phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 15(3), 241-247.
- Cokley, K., Smith, L., Bernard, D., et al. (2017). Impostor feelings as a moderator and mediator of the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health among racial/ethnic minority college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(2), 141-154.
- Kolligian, J., & Sternberg, R. J. (1991). Perceived fraudulence in young adults: Is there an "imposter syndrome"? Journal of Personality Assessment, 56(2), 308-326.
- Leary, M. R., Patton, K. M., Orlando, A. E., & Funk, W. W. (2000). The impostor phenomenon: Self-perceptions, reflected appraisals, and interpersonal strategies. Journal of Personality, 68(4), 725-756.
- Mak, K. K. L., Kleitman, S., & Abbott, M. J. (2019). Impostor phenomenon measurement scales: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 671. Link
- Sakulku, J., & Alexander, J. (2011). The impostor phenomenon. International Journal of Behavioral Science, 6(1), 75-97.
- Vergauwe, J., Wille, B., Feys, M., De Fruyt, F., & Anseel, F. (2015). Fear of being exposed: The trait-relatedness of the impostor phenomenon and its relevance in the work context. Journal of Business and Psychology, 30, 565-581.
- Young, V. (2011). The Secret Thoughts of Successful Women. New York: Crown Business.
This article offers general guidance, up to date at the date of publication. It is no substitute for the advice of a doctor, who alone can make a diagnosis, or for support from a psychologist or psychotherapist.
